A Power Supply Unit (PSU) converts AC (alternating current) from the wall outlet into regulated DC (direct current) voltages required by computer components. It distributes power to the motherboard, CPU, GPU, drives, fans, and peripherals. The power supply unit (PSU) evolved with early electronic computers in the 1950s, standardized later with IBM PCs. 🔌 1. Key Functions 🧩 2. PSU Connectors Connector Purpose 24-pin ATX Main motherboard power 8-pin EPS (CPU) Powers CPU VRMs 6/8-pin PCIe Powers discrete GPUs SATA Power SSDs, HDDs, optical drives Molex Legacy devices, fans, accessories 12VHPWR (ATX 3.0) High-power GPUs (e.g., RTX 40 series) 📐 3. PSU Form Factors Type Description ATX Standard for desktops SFX / SFX-L Compact for small form factor builds TFX...
A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer. It connects and allows communication between the CPU, RAM, storage, GPU, power supply, and peripheral devices. It also houses the chipset, which controls data flow between components. 🧩 1. Key Components on a Motherboard Component Function CPU Socket Holds the processor (e.g., LGA1700 for Intel, AM5 for AMD) RAM Slots (DIMM) Install system memory (DDR3/4/5) Chipset (PCH) Manages communication between CPU, RAM, storage, USB, etc. Power Connectors ATX 24-pin (main), 8-pin (CPU), others for GPU PCIe Slots For GPUs, SSDs, sound/network cards M.2 / SATA Ports For SSDs and HDDs BIOS/UEFI Chip Firmware that initializes hardware and loads the OS VRMs (Voltage Regulator Modules) Regulate power to CPU...
🗂️ 1. Categories of Storage 🔹 Primary Storage (Volatile) 🔹 Secondary Storage (Non-Volatile) 🔹 Tertiary & Offline Storage 🔹 Cloud Storage ⚙️ 2. Key Characteristics Feature HDD SSD RAM Cloud Volatility Non-volatile Non-volatile Volatile Non-volatile Speed Slow (100 MB/s) Fast (500 MB/s–7 GB/s) Very fast (10–100 GB/s) Depends on internet Cost per GB Low Medium–High High Subscription-based Durability Mechanical wear No moving parts Not for storage Depends on provider Use Case Mass storage OS, apps, games Active processing Backup, sync, access anywhere 🧠 3. Storage Hierarchy (Fastest to Slowest) 📦 4. Storage Capacity Units
🧱 1.RAM definition RAM (Random Access Memory) is the system’s fast, volatile working memory used to hold code and data that the CPU or accelerator needs immediately. It’s measured by capacity, bandwidth, latency, and power; it sits between registers/caches and persistent storage in the memory hierarchy. 🧩 2. Memory Types and Where They’re Used Type Description Use Cases DDR3 Legacy DRAM (240-pin DIMM), 1.5V/1.35V, up to 2133 MT/s Older PCs, embedded systems, legacy servers DDR4 Mainstream DRAM (288-pin DIMM), 1.2V, up to 3200 MT/s Modern desktops, laptops, servers DDR5 Advanced DRAM with PMIC, on-die ECC, up to 8800+ MT/s High-end PCs, AI servers, workstations DDR6 Future DRAM, targeting 8800–17600 MT/s, lower voltage Next-gen AI, HPC, gaming platforms LPDDR4X/5/5X/6 Low-power DRAM...
1. GPU definition A GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) is a massively parallel processor optimized for high‑throughput, data‑parallel workloads. Originally designed for rasterization and pixel shading, modern GPUs accelerate gaming graphics, real‑time ray tracing, video processing, scientific compute, and neural network training/inference. 2. Core hardware architecture elements 3. Software, ISA and programming models 4. Leading vendors and representative architectures (2023–2025) 5. Process technology, transistors and packaging impact 6. Performance metrics and selection guidance Practical picks by use case: 7. Modern trends and future directions
The CPU is often called the “brain of the computer.” It executes instructions from software, processes data, and coordinates tasks across all other components. 1. Core Functions 2. Key Specifications 3. Major Players (2025) Brand Key models ISA Process node Segment Intel Core Ultra 7/9, Core i5/i7/i9 14th Gen; Xeon Scalable (Sapphire Rapids); Xeon 6 x86-64 Intel 7, Intel 4, 10 nm class; 7 nm class; 18A roadmap Desktop, mobile, workstation, server AMD Ryzen 7000/8000/9000; Ryzen AI; Threadripper 7000; EPYC 9004 (Genoa/Bergamo/Siena) x86-64 TSMC N5/N4, N3 (select), 6 nm for IO dies Desktop, mobile, HEDT, server Apple M3, M3 Pro/Max; M4 ARMv9 TSMC N3/N3E Laptops, desktops, tablets Qualcomm Snapdragon X Elite/X Plus; Snapdragon 8 Gen 3/4 ARMv9 TSMC N4/N4P; N3...
1.Servers: The Backbone of Networked Computing A server is a computer system designed to provide services, resources, or data to other computers — known as clients — over a network. Unlike personal computers, which are optimized for individual use, servers are built to handle multiple simultaneous requests, operate continuously, and manage centralized tasks such as hosting websites, storing files, running applications, and authenticating users. Servers can be physical machines (dedicated hardware) or virtual instances running on shared infrastructure. They range from small office file servers to massive data center systems powering global cloud platforms. 2.Architecture and Features Servers are engineered for reliability, scalability, and performance in multi-user environments. 3.Example: Dell PowerEdge R760 4.Types of Servers Type Description Web Server Hosts...
1.Embedded Computers are Invisible Intelligence Behind Everyday Devices Embedded computers are specialized computing systems integrated into larger machines or devices to perform dedicated functions. Unlike general-purpose computers such as PCs or laptops, embedded systems are designed to operate autonomously, often in real-time, with minimal user interaction. They are the unseen brains behind countless technologies — from household appliances and automobiles to industrial robots and medical equipment. An embedded computer is not a standalone device. It is “embedded” within a host system, tailored to control, monitor, or assist specific operations. These systems are optimized for reliability, efficiency, and low power consumption, often running on minimal hardware and software. 2.Architecture and Features Embedded computers vary widely depending on their application, but they...
1.Workstations: High-Performance Computing for Professionals A workstation is a high-performance personal computer designed for technical, scientific, and professional applications that demand greater computing power, reliability, and graphics capability than standard desktop PCs. Workstations are widely used in fields such as engineering, architecture, animation, data science, and software development — where precision, speed, and stability are essential. Historical Background 2.Architecture and Features Workstations are built for demanding workloads and long-term reliability. Key features include: UP Dell workstation for example 3.Real-World Example: HP Z8 G5 Workstation Let’s examine a modern workstation to understand its capabilities. 4.Applications Workstations are essential tools in industries where precision and performance are non-negotiable. 5.Comparison with Other Systems Feature Workstations Personal Computers (PCs) Servers / Mainframes Performance High...
1.Personal Computers (PCs): Everyday Computing for Everyone Personal computers (PCs) are computing devices designed for individual use. Unlike supercomputers, mainframes, or minicomputers — which serve multiple users or organizations — PCs are built to perform general-purpose tasks for a single user at a time. They are the most widespread type of computer today, powering homes, offices, schools, and creative studios around the world. 2.Historical Background 3.Architecture and Components Modern PCs are built around modular hardware and flexible software environments. 4.Types of Personal Computers Type Description Desktop PC Stationary system with separate monitor and peripherals; customizable and powerful. Laptop Portable computer with integrated screen and keyboard; balances mobility and performance. All-in-One Combines monitor and computer into a single unit; saves space....
1.Minicomputer: The Midrange Workhorses of Early Computing Minicomputers, also known as midrange computers, were a class of computing systems that emerged in the 1960s to fill the gap between large-scale mainframes and smaller personal computers. Though largely obsolete today, minicomputers played a pivotal role in democratizing computing power for laboratories, small businesses, and industrial control systems. They offered multi-user capabilities, moderate performance, and affordability — making them a popular choice for organizations that couldn’t justify the cost or complexity of a mainframe. Historical Background 2.Architecture and Features Minicomputers were designed to be more compact and affordable than mainframes, while still supporting multiple users and moderate workloads. 3.Real-World Example: DEC VAX-11/780 To understand a minicomputer in practice, let’s look at the...
1.Mainframe Computers: Backbone of Enterprise Data Processing Mainframe computers are large-scale computing systems designed to process vast volumes of data and support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously. Known for their reliability, scalability, and security, mainframes have been the backbone of enterprise computing for decades. They are widely used in industries where data integrity, uptime, and transaction throughput are critical — such as banking, government, healthcare, and aviation. Historical Background 2.Architecture and Features Mainframes differ significantly from personal computers and servers in both design and function. 3.Real-World Example: IBM z16 Mainframe Let’s take a concrete example to illustrate what a modern mainframe looks like. 4.Applications Mainframes are indispensable in sectors where data volume, security, and uptime are non-negotiable.
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